Rajasthani Language, Dialects and Literature: Dingal, Raso, Khyat Notes

At a glance

Kuvalayamala: the Prakrit tale of the Jain monk Udyotana Suri, written at Jalore (Jabalipura) in V.S. 835, names the speech of 18 regions, Maru (the speech of the Maru people) among them. V.S. 835 is 778 CE in Hiralal Maheshwari and 779 CE in A.N. Upadhye's edition; the RBSE book prints 'V.S. 835 (913 CE)'.
Name: George Grierson coined 'Rajasthani' for the speech of Rajasthan in the Linguistic Survey of India. The RBSE book gives 1912; the Survey's Rajasthani volume (Vol. IX, Part II), which says the name was invented for the Survey, is dated 1908.
Dingal is the literary form of Maru-bhasha (Marwari), the language of most Charan poetry; Pingal is Braj Bhasha mixed with Rajasthani.
Script: Rajasthani is written in Devanagari. Traders write it without the vowel signs; this style is called Mahajani or Baniyawati and its letters Mudia.
Status (checked 17 October 2026): Rajasthani is not one of the 22 languages of the Eighth Schedule. The Sahitya Akademi recognises it as a literary language.

From Apabhramsha to Rajasthani

Lineage: Rajasthani grew out of Apabhramsha. Of the three Apabhramshas named as its source (Shauraseni, Nagar and Maru-Gurjar), the Maru-Gurjar view is the more accepted, because Rajasthani and Gujarati both developed from it.
Stages: Old Rajasthani took shape in the 11th century and was one language with Gujarati (Maru-Gurjar) till about 1450, when Maheshwari dates their separation; the RBSE book says Rajasthani grew into an independent language after the 16th century.
Names: the old name is Maru-bhasha (Gopal Lahori, who put Prithviraj Rathore's Veli into Braj, uses it); 'Rajasthani' is the newer name, taken from the state.

Dialects and their regions

Dialect	Region	Sub-dialects and notes
Marwari	Jodhpur, Bikaner, Nagaur, Barmer, Jaisalmer, Pali and part of Shekhawati	Thali and Godwari are its sub-dialects. It covers more area than all the other Rajasthani dialects together, and its literary tradition is the oldest and richest.
Mewari	Udaipur, Chittorgarh, Rajsamand and Bhilwara	Grierson takes it as a form of Marwari.
Dhundhari	Jaipur, Dausa, Bagru and Dudu	Sub-dialects: Torawati, Rajawati and Nagarchal (Nagarchol in RPSC's 2024 paper); Grierson also lists Chaurasi and Kathaira. Its mark is the word chhai ('is'), a sign of Gujarati influence.
Hadoti	Kota, Bundi, Jhalawar and Baran
Mewati	Alwar and Bharatpur, the Meo country (Mewat), reaching into Haryana	Braj Bhasha influence is clear around Bharatpur. Grierson calls Ahirwati a variety of Mewati.
Wagdi	Banswara, Dungarpur and the hill country around them	Gujarati influence is clear.
Malvi	Pratapgarh in Rajasthan; Ratlam and Jhabua in Madhya Pradesh	Rangdi and Nimadi are its sub-dialects; Grierson counts Nimadi as an offshoot of Malvi that became a distinct dialect.
Shekhawati	The Shekhawati tract, named after Rao Shekha; the RBSE book gives Churu, Jhunjhunu, Hanumangarh, Suratgarh and Ganganagar	Grierson counts it as a form of Marwari.
Bagri	The Bagar tract in the north (Hanumangarh, Sri Ganganagar and parts of Bikaner and Churu), running into Haryana and Punjab	Grierson groups it with Shekhawati as Northern Marwari.
Bhili and other hill dialects	Dungarpur, Banswara and the hill parts of Mewar	Spoken by the Bhil, Meena and Garasia communities; each is touched by the dialects of its area.

How the dialects are grouped

Scholar or book	Groups	Dialects in each group
Grierson, Linguistic Survey of India	Five dialects	West: Marwari. Central-East: Jaipuri (Dhundhari) and Harauti. North-East: Mewati and Ahirwati. South-East: Malvi and Nimadi.
RBSE Class 10 book	Two groups	Western: Marwari, Mewari, Bagri and Shekhawati. Eastern: Dhundhari, Hadoti, Mewati and Ahirwati (Rathi).
Hiralal Maheshwari	Five branches	Marwari-Mewari; Jaipuri-Hadoti; Mewati-Ahirwati; Malvi; Bhili or Bagadi (the Vagad speech of Dungarpur–Banswara).

Dingal and Pingal in use

In Pingal: Prithviraj Raso, Vijaypal Raso, Rajvilas and most of Vansh Bhaskar.
First use of the word Dingal: Maheshwari finds it, with Pingal, in a chhappay of the saint-poet Surjandas Piniya, about 1640 or earlier; Motilal Menaria names Bankidas's Kukavi-Battisi (V.S. 1871) as the first.
Git: the Dingal git is the typical Charan metre, bound by the strict rule of vayan-sagai (alliteration); doha, chhappay and nisani are the other common Charan metres.

Periods of Rajasthani literature

Period (RBSE)	Years	Character
Early period, the Veergatha (heroic poetry) period	1050–1550 CE	Heroic poems, written while the rulers had to resist repeated invasions from the west. Jain authors also wrote.
Pre-medieval period, the Bhakti period	1450–1650 CE	Saints and sects (Ramsnehi, Dadupanth, Nathpanth, Alakhiya, Vishnoi, Jasnathi) stressed name-remembrance, nirguna worship and the guru; saguna poets praised their gods.
Post-medieval period: love, poetics and conduct	1650–1850 CE	Works on love, on poetics (kavya-shastra) and on conduct (niti), under rulers who patronised poets and artists.
Modern period	1850 CE onwards	New awareness after 1857; Kaviraja Bankidas of Marwar and Suryamall Misan of Bundi began it.

Maheshwari divides it in three: Early (1050–1450), Medieval (1450–1850) and Modern (1850 onwards).

Literary forms

Form	Meaning	Examples
Raso	A long poem on a king's fame, victories, wars and bravery.
Khyat	History that rulers had written to record their honour and deeds.	Nainsi ri Khyat (Muhnot Nainsi, 1610–1670); Dayaldas ri Khyat; Bankidas ri Khyat
Vat	A story told aloud: the teller goes on and the listener answers 'hunkara' to show he is listening. Vats are in prose, in verse or in both.
Vigat	A detailed account of a subject, such as a state's rulers, family and notable persons; its figures are useful for the economy.	Marwar ra Pargana ri Vigat (Nainsi)
Vachanika	Rhymed prose mixed with verse, from Sanskrit 'vachan'.
Davavait	Rhymed prose mixed with verse, like the vachanika; in it are the hero's praise, the state's splendour, battles and hunting. The vachanika is in Rajasthani, while the davavait uses Urdu and Persian words (RBSE; Maheshwari: Rajasthani mixed with Khadi Boli or Urdu).	Akhmal Devda ri Davavait; Maharana Jawansingh ri Davavait; Raja Jaisingh ri Davavait
Veli	Poems in the Veliyo metre, on religious or historical subjects.	Daidas Jaitawat ri Veli; Veli Krisan Rukmani ri
Prakas and Rupak	Poems on the deeds of a clan or a person.	Raj Prakas, Suraj Prakas; Raj Rupak, Rupak Gogadeji ro
Marsiya	An elegy on the death of a king or a person, praising his character and deeds.	Rane Jagpat ra Marsya (on the death of Maharana Jagat Singh of Mewar)
Jhulna and Jhamal	Metres; many Charan poems are named after them.	Jhulna: Raja Gajsingh ra Jhulna, Rao Surtan Devda ra Jhulna, Amarsingh ra Jhulna · Jhamal: Rao Indrasingh ri Jhamal

Major works and authors

Work	Author	Period and subject
Ranmall Chhand	Shridhar Vyas	Early period; the war of Rao Ranmall Rathore of Idar with Zafar Khan, governor of Gujarat
Achaldas Khichi ri Vachanika	Charan Shivdas Gadan	The war of the Khichi ruler Achaldas of Gagron with Hoshang Shah of Malwa
Rathaud Ratan Singh Mahesdasot ri Vachanika	Khidiya Jagga	The battle of Dharmat (1658) and the fall of Ratan Singh Rathore of Ratlam
Sagat Raso	Girdhar Asiya	Shaktisingh, the younger brother of Rana Pratap, his son Achalsingh and grandson Narhari
Khuman Raso	Daulat Vijay	Early 18th century; Mewar's rulers from Bappa Rawal to Maharana Raj Singh
Shatrusal Raso	Dungarsi (Rav Dingarsi in Maheshwari)	Medieval period
Ratan Raso	Kumbhkaran Sandu	Medieval period; the war among Shah Jahan's sons, with the battle of Dharmat
Ram Raso	Madhodas Dadhwadiya	Bhakti period; the story of Ram
Veli Krisan Rukmani ri	Prithviraj Rathore (1549–1600)	Bhakti period; composed in 1580; the marriage of Krishna and Rukmini; the best-known veli
Hari Ras and Deviyan	Isardas Barhat	Bhakti period; devotional poems of a Charan poet
Nag Daman	Sayaji Jhula	Bhakti period; Krishna crushing the serpent Kaliya
Raj Rupak and Suraj Prakas	Virbhan Ratnu and Karnidan Kaviya	Post-medieval period; court poets of Maharaja Abhay Singh of Jodhpur, on his battle of Ahmedabad (1730) against Sarbuland Khan
Rajiya ra Soratha	Kriparam Khidiya	Post-medieval period; conduct (niti) couplets addressed to his servant Rajiya, whose name is in each of them
Vansh Bhaskar and Vir Satsai	Suryamall Misan of Bundi (1815–1868)	Modern period; Vansh Bhaskar is a verse history of Bundi's rulers; Vir Satsai is incomplete

Poems and books on the Chauhans (Prithviraj Raso, Bisaldev Raso, Hammir Raso, Kanhadade Prabandh) are on the Chauhans page; Kesari Singh Barhath's Chetavani ra Chungatya is on the personalities page.

Modern Rajasthani literature

Bankidas (d. 1833 CE): court poet and historian of Maharaja Man Singh of Jodhpur.
Shivchandra Bharatiya (1853–1918): called the first modern Rajasthani prose writer; his works include the novel Kanak Sundar and the play Kesar Vilas.
Kanhaiyalal Sethia: his song 'Dharti Dhoran ri' is called the ideal song of Rajasthan; Minjhar and Lilatans are his main collections.
Vijaydan Detha: Batan ri Phulwari, Rajasthan's folk tales retold in his own style; 13 volumes in the RBSE book, 14 in the key of CET Graduation 2022.
Sitaram Lalas: compiled the Rajasthani–Hindi dictionary, Rajasthani Sabad Kos.

Folk literature

Ballads (lok gatha): Pabuji's pawada is sung by bhopas before a phad, a painted scroll; the folk deities page has the phads.
Folk tales (lok katha): the vats of oral tradition; Vijaydan Detha and Lakshmi Kumari Chundawat retold them.
Riddles: aadi and hiyali are Rajasthani words for riddles.
Folk songs and folk plays (khyal, swang, lila) are on the folk music and theatre page.

Official status and institutions

2003: the Rajasthan Legislative Assembly unanimously passed a resolution asking for Rajasthani to be added to the Eighth Schedule.
16 March 2021: the Union Home Ministry told the Lok Sabha that there were demands to include Rajasthani, but no fixed criteria and so no time-frame for adding languages.
21 July 2023: the Supreme Court dismissed a petition for its inclusion (Ripudaman Singh v. Union of India), holding that adding a language is a policy decision for the government.
12 May 2026: the Supreme Court (Padam Mehta v. State of Rajasthan) directed the state to frame a policy for mother-tongue education, to recognise Rajasthani as a local or regional language for education, to introduce it as a subject in all schools, government and private, in phases, and to adopt it progressively as a medium of instruction, first at the foundational and preparatory stages and later at higher levels.
Institutions: the Rajasthan Sahitya Akademi (Sangam), Udaipur, formed in 1958, publishes Madhumati; the Rajasthani Bhasha Sahitya evam Sanskriti Akademi, Bikaner, publishes Jagti Jot.
Saints and their books (Meera, Dadu, Jambhoji, Charandas and others, and the dialect of Sahjobai and Dayabai) are on the saints page; khyat, vigat and bahi as sources of history are on the history sources page.

Remember: often mixed up

Other namesDhundhari is also called Jaipuri · Hadoti is Grierson's Harauti · Wagdi of Banswara–Dungarpur is not Bagri of the north; Maheshwari spells the Vagad speech Bagadi.
Prose or versekhyat and vigat are prose · vachanika and davavait mix rhymed prose and verse · vat can be prose, verse or both · raso, veli, rupak, prakas, jhulna and jhamal are poetry. In RPSC's 2024 key the muktak (self-contained verse) form is Panchak, not vat or vigat.
Khuman RasoDaulat Vijay and Dalpat Vijay are one Jain monk (Dalpat before initiation); Karnidan Kaviya wrote Suraj Prakas, not Khuman Raso. Some put Khuman Raso in early Hindi literature, but it was written in the 18th century.